Huh

Huh? A Model of Space, Infinity and Flow

Chapter 7

A New Model of the Sun

"When you don't know that you don't know, it's a lot different than when you do know that you don't know. He knows now that he doesn't know. Last year, he didn't know that.
--Bill Parcells

Chapter 6 attempted to compare the model to tornados and hurricanes and during the search for data and information I ran across a model by Dr. Lennard Fisk, Dr. Thomas Zurbuchen and Nathan Schwadron with the data that shows the magnetic fields being radiated from the sun appear to be like a wild cyclone. I never dreamed the model based on the Agnesi curve would have any relation to the sun, but the more I read and learned about the sun I began to believe it might be able to model it. What helped the most was a NASA website by Dr. David Hathaway that explained what was known about the sun and what the mysteries were, most dealing with how the solar dynamo worked. The following takes the model described in chapters 2 thru 4 and uses it to develop a theory of how the sun might work. This theory uses the model to attempt to answer the mysteries of the solar dynamo described on the NASA website by Dr. Hathaway.

Abstract

A description of a mathematical/mechanical model of the sun that exhibits many of its mysterious behaviors. An understanding of the model could possibly provide a rational basis to predict how the sun could affect the earth’s climate in the future. At the heart of this model is a simple formula that allows a 3-D computer model to be built. This model represents the Radiative Zone of the sun and mimics many of the observations we have made of the sun. The mechanical part models the outer portion of the sun and is independent from the inner math portion. The separation of the inner and outer allows the pair to work together as a pump.

Introduction

Have you ever thought about how the sun works? I’m certain from the time humans acquired the ability to think and reason this question has baffled them. I can picture early cavemen developing theories of it being a large ball of fire or lightning in the sky. But these explanations carried with them mysteries that were even more difficult to explain. Why does the fire go out each night? Who relights it in the morning? The models the early cavemen had were few.

It would be difficult for a caveman to figure out the day/night mystery until he invented the wheel. Many years later someone using this wheel as a model figured out the apparent obvious, the sun rotates around the earth. Mystery solved, no one was needed to relight the fire, it never went out.

In 141ad Ptolemy developed a model of our solar system that had the earth as the center with the moon, the sun and all of the planets rotating around it. This model held for over 1400 years until 1514 when Nicolaus Copernicus developed a new model that had the sun at the center and the earth and all of the planets rotating around it, and for the day/night portion of the mystery the earth rotates on its own axis. While this new model helped answer many mysteries, it didn’t answer the original question “How does the sun work”?

In 1905 Albert Einstein developed a mathematical model of energy with his famous E=mc^2 equation and in 1952 with the explosion of the first hydrogen bomb we finally had a model that explains how the sun works. The bomb shows if you fuse two hydrogen atoms together you get a helium atom, the excess is given off as energy. Fig 7-1A shows our current model of the sun as a nuclear fusion power plant. Fusion requires extreme heat that our sun can provide and extreme pressure, which our sun because of its mass can also provide.

Figure 7-1 Current and New Model

(A) is our current model of the sun. This current model suggests there are magnetic field lines coming from the sun that look like water from a lawn sprinkler. Data from the joint NASA/ESA Ulysses spacecraft is suggesting that this “lawn sprinkler” motion might not be correct. There is work being done on a model that suggests that the lines would be more like a wild tornado. See: http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/headline_universe/fisk.html&edu=high

(B) Is a model that would replace the current models Radiative Zone. This model suggests that the Radiative Zone might consist of two bound flows working opposite of each other. The white circle shown is the start of the Convective Zone. The Inner and Outer combined can be thought of as a pump, similar to a vane or Gerotor pump.

(C) As the flows cross (where the color changes from blue to orange) violent explosions are happening from the fusion process and energy is released, this forces the Convective Zone or outer surface to move faster that the Radiative Zone. According to this model from the Convective Zone out moves 14 times faster than the inner Radiative Zone.

All mysteries solved? Not quite. The amount of heat it gives off seems to vary considerably more than we would expect and the solar wind is about twice of what we calculate it should be. One thing we can predict though is sunspots, because we know they follow cycles, but we don’t know why. Why sunspots follow an 11/22-year cycle and what causes the sun to reverse its magnetic poles every 11 years are some of the mysteries our models don’t help answer.

A New Model

The new model shown in Figure 7-1B & 7-1C can be use to describe the mysteries we are observing from the sun. It is a simple mathematical/mechanical model that provides a visual suggestion of what could be taking place..

The biggest conceptual change is a separation of the sun into two sections; the “Inner” is from the Radiative Zone inward and the “Outer” is from the start of the Convective Zone outwards.

The Inner section of the model is mathematical, a 3-D model constructed from the equation y=a^3 / (a^2 + x^2). See chapter 15 for information on the equation and building the model. This Inner consists of two opposite flows that are bound together by their interweaving flow patterns.

The Outer section of the model is mechanical and is free to rotate around the Inner at its own speed. The Inner and Outer work together as a pump. The Inner with its violent actions where the two flows cross, releases more energy than the Outer, at that point can handle, causing the Outer to move and rotate around the Inner, similar to a mechanical vane or gerotor pump. Because of the shape of the Inner section, the pump is very efficient at the equator, but the efficiency drops to almost zero at the poles.

The separation of the Inner and Outer zones provides us a mechanism or model that can begin to help explain the sun’s biggest mystery, the 11/22-year cycles. To do this we have the Inner make one full rotation every 22 years relative to the earth. For this to happen the Inner portion must rotate 360/ 22=16.3636 degrees more than the earth each year. Since the earth rotates around the sun it means the needed sun degrees per day is (16.3636 + 360)/365.25 or 1.030427 degrees per day. The time for the sun to make one rotation is 360/1.030427 or 349.3696 earth days. The difference between our year and the sun’s year is where the sun picks up the 16.3636 degrees each year.

From earth we measure the sun’s time to rotate once as ~27 days at the equator. Using this model, it would mean that the Outer would be moving almost 14 times faster than the Inner. The increase in speed would be from the pumping action. The mechanical portion of the model could help explain and predict the solar winds.

The idea of the outer moving faster than the inner is not unique to the Sun; Venus also has the same type of phenomenon. Its heavy atmosphere rotates 50 to 60 times faster than the surface. The surface covered with lava flows, quake faults and impact craters; all of the types of actions required to make it work as a pump similar to the sun. See the following NASA site for more information:

http://pds.jpl.nasa.gov/planets/choices/venus1.htm

At this point we should be able to begin to picture in our minds this mathematical/mechanical model Figure 7-1C. The model has an Inner portion with opposite flows bound together and the Outer section that is forced to rotate about 14 times faster than the Inner and has turbulent flows. There are two parts of this model we need to make sure we can visualize; on the Inner there is a line where the two opposite flows intersect, this is the line of action. I think of it as a dead short, with turbulence and chaos. The Outer I picture like a basketball, spinning 14 times faster than the Inner section. On this Outer near the surface is the photosphere where the sunspots appear and are recorded and carried for a portion of its revolution.

Now that we have this model of the sun let’s see how well it is able to handle the sun’s mysteries. To do this we should have a good understanding of the mysteries and what our current level of knowledge of the sun is. The following three websites authored by Dr. David Hathaway provide what is known and what the mysteries are of the sun. The website is up to date and provides clear explanations of the known and unknowns.

· The main NASA solar site: http://solarscience.msfc.nasa.gov/

· The page that list five things a model must explain: http://solarscience.msfc.nasa.gov/dynamo.shtml

· Sunspot picture: http://solarscience.msfc.nasa.gov/feature1.shtml

The 5 main mysteries are:

1. The 11-year cycle of the sunspots

2. Explain the equator-ward drift of the active cycle

3. Explain Hale’s Polarity Law

4. Explain Joy’s Law of observed drift

5. Reversal of the polar magnetic fields near cycle maximum

Other mysteries

6. The Coronal Heating Process (solar wind)

7. Differential Rotation

8. Magnetic flow from poles (Wild Cyclone vs. Lawn Sprinkler)

Using the Model

A Theory on The Maunder Minimum

The following describes how this model duplicates the mysteries we observe of the sun. Why the model is able to duplicate our observations in many cases is obvious, others are not so clear. The ones not obvious come from the equation y=a^3 / (a^2 + x^2), that generates the Inner shape. Why this equation can duplicate our observations is beyond the scope of this paper. What is important now is that the mathematical portion of the model does help the whole model duplicate what we see.

Figure 7-2 Hale’s Law and Joy’s Law Defined

Mystery 1

The 11-year sunspot cycle

Since we designed our model around the 11/22-year cycle this is no mystery, it is the basis of the model. The separation of the Inner and Outer allows the speed difference and the model being a pump is what causes 14 times difference.

Figure 7-4 shows the Inner section making one full revolution and takes 22 years.

As stated earlier the model rotates 16.3636 degrees more than the earth does in one year. This works out to 1/2 rotation in 11 years and a full rotation in 22 years.

Mystery 2

The Equator-ward drift

The equator-ward drift or butterfly effect is best seen on Figure 7-2A and is not hard to see on the model once you realize the Outer surface is rotating 14 times faster than the Inner surface therefore producing the front half of the butterfly. Remember the Outer surface is round while the Inner is oblong. Where the shear line is based on the Inner and influences what you see as the Outer surfaces passes by. In Figure 7-4 you can see the changes in the view of the shear line and where the arcing would affect the surface. If you look at years 1989 through 1996 you can see the butterfly effect.

Figure 7-3 Hale’s Law and Joy’s Law

Mystery 3

Hales Polarity Law

The polarity of the leading spots in one hemisphere is opposite that of the leading spots in the other hemisphere and the polarities reverse from one cycle to the next. See Figure 7-3A.

At first glance Hale’s Law appears simply to restate Mystery 5 the reversal of the polar magnetic fields. But Hale’s Law is an observation that complicates the polar magnetic reversal. Look at Figure 7-2B where the 11-year cycle outlines look like butterflies; if you were to only reverse the polarity on the left butterfly would not give you the same look as the middle butterfly. Cutting it out and turning it upside down makes it worse because it’s going the wrong direction. To convert the left butterfly to match the center requires a mirror image turned upside down. (Figure 7-3B)

I thought Hale’s Law would be the easiest of all observations to explain because when I plotted the model you could see it. In fact it was what convinced me the model would work. In this new model the equation is doing the reversal and mirroring. When watching the model in motion you can see the equation turning the model inside out. It reminds me of a Do-Se-Do in square dancing when one hand is held while spinning your partner around.

Mystery 4

Joy’s Law

Joy’s Law states that in a bipolar group of sunspots there will be two spots, one is the leader (west) and the follower at the easterly end. It is common for the leader to be closer to the equator by 11 degrees at sunspot minimum and 3 degrees at sunspot maximum. Large complex groups of sunspots will often violate this law. See Figure 7-2C.

If the model has any validity then Joy’s Law help’s in explaining how it works. Joy’s Law seems to be saying groups of sunspots above the equator look like “/ / / / / / /” and below the equator look like “ \ \ \ \ \ \ \”. If they happened totally at random you would expect patterns above the equator to tend to look like “/ / / - \ \ \” due to the spherical shape of the sun and below the equator to look like “\ \ \ - / / /”. The difference in angularity at 10 degrees and 30 degrees, if they happened at random would agree with Joy’s Law. Joy’s Law is saying “something strange is happening”. If we start a new cycle with the blue half of the model facing us as shown in Figure 7-3C, Joy’s Law is saying this blue half is the dominate half and is pulling the orange half. At cycle maximum Figure 7-3D the orange half, all things being equal would start to take over, but Figure 7-3E shows the blue portion still pulling the model. This is assuming Joy’s Law is correct. When we start the next 11-year cycle the orange is pulling, this is due to the model being turned inside out as explained in Mystery 3.

(1) (2) (3)

Figure 7-4 11/22 Year Solar Cycle Click on Picture For Animation

Mystery 5

Magnetic field reversal

Once again using this model to explain the reversal of the polar magnetic fields near cycle maximum is easy. When the model has rotated 180 degrees the side facing the earth has a different flow and a different magnetic field. A pole-to-pole rotation is not needed. If you look at Figure 7-4 around 1982 you will see the change in polarity. This isn’t a quick change it takes many months.

Mystery 6

The Solar Winds

This model, as stated, views the sun as a pump. The Outer surface is forced to rotate 14 times faster than the Inner portion, much like an engine runs by small explosions in the cylinders. The explosions or primary force is the solar flares caused by arcing and igniting the gases inside. These explosions take place along the shear line where the plus and minus surfaces cross. This causes the turbulence in the convective zone and in turn an increase in speed due to the expansion of the gases. This pumping action forces the gases outward helping to remove the heat from the sun and cause the solar wind.

Due to the shape of the Inner section this wind is concentrated at the equator and as you move farther away from the equator there is less wind.

Mystery 7

Differential Rotation

From earth the observed rate of rotation of the sun at the equator is ~27 days and ~31 days at the poles. If you look at this models Inner and Outer section this differential rotation can be explained by the amount of pumping action-taking place at the different latitudes. At the equator where there is the most clearance and the most expanding gases the pumping action would be the greatest. As you move towards the poles there is very little clearance for the gases and the pumping action would be much less.

Figure 7-5 Inside the Model

Mystery 8

Wild Cyclone Magnetic Effect

Figure 7-5 takes us inside the model. With the model cut into four sections, Figure 7-5D looks like a cyclone/tornado and while rotating you can see a corkscrew effect happening. Descriptions of tornados actually describe an effect that resembles a corkscrew and watching recordings of tornados you can see opposite forces going on, one pulling things into and upwards and a greater force pushing outwards. The shapes of tornados are seldom a v shape, most pictures I’ve see shows a distinct hook at the bottom, much like section in Figure 7-5D.

Dr. Lennard Fisk, Thomas Zurbuchen and Nathan Schwadron, wrote about a cyclone effect based on data collected by the NASA/ESA Ulysses mission. They are developing a new model of the magnetic field lines coming from the sun using this data; this new model will replace the old model that showed a fixed radiating pattern similar to a lawn sprinkler. The old model’s radiating pattern’s source can be seen in Figure 7-1A, they are the black lines in the upper right quadrant of the model. (4) (5)

The model I’ve been describing in this article could produce this “wild cyclone” effect, especially when you consider the effect would produce a double cyclone as shown in Figure 7-5C.

Figure 7-6 The Maunder Minimum

The Maunder Minimum theory

The Maunder Minimum is a 70-year period from 1645 to 1715 with very few sunspots.

When you build a mechanical model, like the one I am presenting for the sun, there are certain things you expect and some things you can’t accept. With a mechanical model, mysteries or unknowns should invite theories or speculation on what is happening. The Maunder Minimum is an example of something I couldn’t accept. How does a mechanical system suddenly stop working for 70 years? Sunspots that this model predicts so well can’t just stop. This model has them as an integral function of how it works. But for 70 years they almost vanished.

My first thought was it was just a problem with measurement, but upon checking into it further I read about Galileo being one of the first to observe them and the method a student devised to measure and record them. While the first data from 1610 to 1645 didn’t really match any of the modern cycles it was close enough to convince me that they did have the ability to see the sunspots and they had a good method for recording them (Figure 7-6C). Rice University and NASA’s Galileo Project has actual copies of sunspot charts done by Galileo in 1612 on the Galileo Project website (6).

The first thing I did was to turn the model to see if there was a point that I couldn’t see the shearing action effect. I could get rid of this by turning the poles towards the earth. The first thought that came to me was “if it did this the earth wouldn’t have the solar wind blowing on it and it would get colder” see Figure 7-6B. A quick check on the Internet showed there was a mini-ice age during that time and many had made a connection to the lack of sunspots.

A description of the Maunder Minimum from wikipedia.org:

The Maunder Minimum is the name given to the period roughly from 1645 to 1715 A.D., when sunspots became exceedingly rare, as noted by solar observers of the time. It is named after the later solar astronomer E.W. Maunder who discovered the dearth of sunspots during that period by studying records from those years. During one 30-year period within the Maunder Minimum, for example, astronomers observed only about 50 sunspots, as opposed to a more typical 40,000-50,000 spots.

The Maunder Minimum coincided with the middle — and coldest part — of the so-called Little Ice Age, during which Europe and North America, and perhaps much of the rest of the world, were subjected to bitterly cold winters. Recently published data suggests that the Sun expanded during the Maunder Minimum and its rotation slowed. A larger and slower Sun, it is speculated, might also mean a cooler Sun that provides less heat to Earth. (Just why the Sun expands and contracts is still a mystery.)

Whether there is a causal connection between low sunspot activity and cold winters is the subject of ongoing debate. Some scientists believe that solar activity drives climate change more than carbon dioxide does (see global warming).

The lower solar activity during the Maunder Minimum also affected the amount of cosmic radiation reaching the Earth. The resulting change in the production of carbon-14 during that period caused an inaccuracy in radiocarbon dating until this effect was discovered.

If the sun did rotate 90 degrees what could have caused it to happen? My first thought was something big hit the sun or a massive solar eruption rotated it on its axis. Simple and possible explanations with the only problem being how did it get back upright?

Planets have an effect on a stars stability, that’s how astronomers search for planets rotating around stars; they look for wobble in the star, if they find the wobble changing they have evidence of large planet. This planet induced wobble is caused by either the mass of the planet or combined planets or their combined magnetic forces. I don’t know whether these forces are strong enough to rotate the sun over 45 degrees, but if they can, then the sun would have the ability to get back upright.

If the sun does work like this model and can change its axis or acquire a great amount of wobble then it would have a great affect on the earth’s weather. The longer the sun’s spin axis is vertical the warmer the earth becomes, due to the constant solar wind. The more wobble the sun has, the greater the fluctuations in the weather around the planet due to this wobble. When one of the sun’s poles is facing the earth and its spin rate on its third axis is the same as earths orbit rate we have an ice age due to the lack of solar wind. If the sun does have an inner and outer portion spinning at different rates then it could behave like a gyroscope and when the axis is pulled down would cause it to spin by precession and could follow the earths rotation with one pole facing it.

The question “Will this model replace the current model of the sun?” is not a question I can answer. The models simplicity and ability to provide insight and prediction will answer that question.

I am beyond the point of convincing myself of the models ability to model different systems of energy. As Seymour Papert would put it, “this model is in my collection of models”. I present the model here so you can decide if it is a model you want to add to your collection of models.

Conclusion

Modeling the sun as a pump allows us to picture in our mind what might be taking place inside and possibly allow us to predict future solar events and how that event might effect changes to the earth.

References

1. THE ASTROPHYSICAL JOURNAL, 518:508520, 1999 June 10

N/A http://cdsaas.u-strasbg.fr:2001/ApJ/journal/issues/ApJ/v518n1/39009/sc1.html

2. THE ASTROPHYSICAL JOURNAL, 486:502520, 1997 September 1

http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/ApJ/journal/issues/ApJ/v486n1/35056/35056.html

3. http://www.acseal.freeserve.co.uk/solar.htm

4. http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/headline_universe/fisk.html

5. N/A http://www.planetary.org/html/news/articlearchive/headlines/1997/headln-111097.html

6. http://es.rice.edu/ES/humsoc/Galileo/

Additional pictures and movies

7. New Jersey Institute of Technology

Pictures and movies